Canadian Urban Agriculture: Farming Inside City Limits

A Brief History Of The Rise And Fall of Urban Farming:  From Ancient City-States to Modern Toronto

By Rob Cottignies

An example of Egyptian Urban Agriculture with accompanying hieroglyphics. (www.hoerrschaudt.com)

   Which come first, the chicken, the egg, the farm or the farmer?  Urban Agriculture is defined as: “the growing of plants and trees and rearing of livestock within or on the fringe of cities” (De Zeeuw et al., 2011). Urban agriculture and animal husbandry on private property within city limits, has been around almost as long as we have had cities in which to reside. Going all the way back to the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, many cities were originally established in areas with highly productive soil, due to a need of access to crops. The lack of a sophisticated transportation system or refrigeration meant that people were forced to live and farm within the city.

Community garden South of the CN Tower in downtown Toronto. (www.greenfusestock.photoshelter.com)

   For thousands of years, cities and agriculture coexisted. In Canada, this close relationship between people and food would dramatically change post industrial revolution. It has seen a rise and fall, an industrial expansion and in recent culture, a reemergence due to societal priority shifts towards natural and sustainable products. To many, the negative connotations of keeping farm animals within city limits are eminently clear, while to others, the positives outweigh these concerns, which has seen an underground resurgence in the practice. In Toronto this resurgence is despite Bylaw 349, which actually forbids the ownership of chickens, and imposes a $240 fine per animal if not removed. Should the animals not be evacuated by the owners, then they are removed and destroyed by (by-law) officers.

An example of 15th century medieval urban agriculture (courtesy of www.wideurbanworld.ca)

    Residents of Ontario can trace their history of animal husbandry and urban farming to the British. In the late 1700’s after channeling loyalists into the lower Great Lakes, they promoted private agriculture of grains and vegetables, primarily for subsistence. This promotion involved financial incentives to those that cleared and fenced their land, but the lack of major trade markets kept the area in a state of self-sufficiency rather than export-level production. However, for almost 6 decades from 1800 onward, it was wheat production that dominated the region (Dick, Lyle & Taylor, Jeff).

     It was not until 1850/60, largely due to the Reciprocity Treaty with the US, that Ontario agriculture really diversified, pushing into cheese, dairy, wool and livestock export (Dick, Lyle & Taylor, Jeff). This was followed, in time, by the industrial revolution, which brought extensive transportation networks, economic growth and prosperity. This in turn brought more people to the cities to work in factories and participate in industrial progress. The increasing population and size of the cities eventually led to dense development patterns with little to no green space, leaving the vast majority of people separated from food production, which then moved to the outskirts of the city. This new, denser, urban population of the late 1800’s, early 1900’s, began to view Urban Agriculture not as a necessity, but as a nuisance.

     This divorce of urbanites from agriculture continued until the first and second world wars. At this point, although Canada was not as largely affected, wartime blockades increased the threat of starvation to many, and pushed citizens to increase domestic food production. However, once the wars were over, urban agriculture actually declined again, mainly due to negative associations with wartime austerity, contrasted against post-war prosperity. The ability to disassociate from our food sources has allowed agriculture to churn out produce on a massive industrial scale, keeping food cheap and accessible.

Photo of intensive soy bean farming in Brazil. An example of the huge, industrialized agriculture industry, that is both global and energy intensive.

     However, urbanites decreased connection to personal food systems, and reliance on external sources means that systems are becoming ever-more vulnerable to food insecurity. Among many contributors to this are peak oil, climate change and monopolistic corporations. This industrialized food system, as it stands, doesn’t necessarily place human health high on the agenda and is promoted as being supremely efficient. However, when the associated costs of this food are examined, a number of inefficiencies, such as chronic and widespread obesity, water treatment costs and disease-spread management costs, openly present themselves. Food has been deceptively cheap for a long time, but rising energy prices and poor land use have led to increased volatility in food prices.

     As a result of several of these issues combining into a ‘perfect storm’ and a general raising of public ethical consciousness through social media and diffuse news sources, people are beginning to realize this mechanized food production and distribution is not sustainable. Alternatively a community food program provides a “system that ensures secure access to adequate amounts of safe, nutritious, sustainably produced food, that is also provided in a manner that promotes human dignity” (Desjardins et al., 2002, p. 2).

     Due to escalating grocery costs as a result of climbing fuel prices and logistical issues, enthusiasm for urban farming appears very much on the rise. This has led to more and more people looking to grow sustainable vegetables and rear chickens, bees and goats on their property. Keeping chickens has become a primary focus for most urban farming enthusiasts. The benefits to owners of fresh eggs and potentially meat are obvious in terms of food security, but to many, the attachment goes beyond, into family and pet ties. 

The resurgence of keeping chickens in both city centre and suburban gardens has led to all-in-one solutions such as Omlet’s Eglu Cube, which is a practical complete package for up to 10 chickens for around $1000.

     Obviously, in terms of plant-based agriculture, there are very few limits on what people can grow. However, Toronto city council still frowns upon the idea of animal husbandry and there are city bylaws that prohibit the ownership of backyard chickens within city limits. Despite a number of areas like Vancouver, Victoria, Surrey, Montreal and Brampton legally allowing the practice, Toronto, Ottawa, Calgary and Winnipeg still forbid it, citing biosecurity and potential bird flu epidemics. It wasn’t until 1987 that the bylaw actually came into force in Toronto, at which point, the predominantly Italian and Portuguese neighbourhoods that were keeping chickens, were forced to hide them in basements and concealed sheds etc, to evade detection.

     In the years since the Bylaw came into effect, policing the practice has relaxed with the passing of time. Present day enforcement works almost exclusively on a complaints basis, which has in part, been a reason for the renaissance in keeping fowl. Even the US-based Rent-A-Chicken business now supplies to Toronto, as enforcement is seen as less of an issue than ever. As recently as 2012, city council voted to uphold Bylaw 349, citing noise and unsanitary conditions. However, provided new owners consult with their neighbours beforehand and ensure issues are brought to their attention first, many owners are happily keeping their chickens within city limits. This system commonly results in the neighbours being provided with ‘hush eggs’ in exchange for their silence.

This map illustrates areas of Canada that have permitted backyard chicken schemes in place.  Provided by: http://madinthehat.blogspot.ca/2014/06/18-canadian-food-maps-charts.html

     Keeping Bees in the city is not prohibited, but hives are to be kept a minimum of 30m from any property lines. Again, as with chickens, the enforcement process is almost entirely complaints-driven, so pre-ownership consultation with neighbours is a must. The payoff for keeping bees is even more extensive than chickens, as the number of products that can be made using honey is exhaustive. An additional benefit to bee-keeping at this point is a societal one. It has been much publicized that global bee populations are on the decrease and the detrimental results for humans have been highlighted, given bees’ ability to pollenate crops. However, bee-keeping is not as accessible as chickens and requires more specialized knowledge, so although increasing, the hobby hasn’t seen the same rise in interest as urban chickens.

An example of urban bee-keeping in Seattle. The practice has also seen a significant uptake in the last 5-10 years, but is generally less accessible than chicken keeping.

     For many, the re-growth of urban farming creates a renewed sense of community in city environments. Projects in areas that allow backyard chickens have proven that it’s not just the fresh eggs that neighbours love about the chickens, it’s the connection they had with them. They become a talking point, a continuous discussion between enthusiasts, creating a dialogue around food and community health. Present day urban farmers want to combine the benefits of the city with the advantages of country life. They want to be connected to their food source, while also enjoying the renewed sense of community the practice yields. Also, with the environmentally conscious movement in full swing, keeping chickens at home can be balanced against driving to the store, packaging waste and treatment of the animals themselves in densely packed farms.

     Not that Ontario is currently suffering from a lack of food security, but perhaps with regulation and clear guidance from the provincial authority, urban agriculture could once again thrive in downtown Toronto, and the population could benefit both from a communal perspective and a health perspective. A new urban bartering economy could materialize, where people can trade eggs for milk, meat for honey and a host of other produce borne of the new urban agriculture scene, and all the while with guaranteed origins and natural growth. Through nurturing of community gardens which are spreading, and regulation of urban animal husbandry, localized governments could be part of a new era of natural, organic food sourcing within urban areas.

     “Strengthening local and regional food systems offers a pathway toward achieving equitable and energy-efficient food production and distribution… promising approaches include… the encouragement of urban and peri-urban agriculture, an increasingly important component of food security in many countries” (Ishii-Eiteman, 2009, p. 223).

-------

Works Cited and Other Resources:

Striepe, Becky. “Backyard Chickens. The Untold Story”
www.eatdrinkbetter.com, https://eatdrinkbetter.com/2013/07/15/backyard-chickens-the-untold-story/

Omlet, “Eglu Cube Chicken Coop”
www.omlet.us, https://www.omlet.us/shop/chicken_keeping/eglu_cube/

Yu, Andrea. “Urban farmers in Toronto flout regulations to raise bees and chickens”
www.postcity.com, http://www.postcity.com/Eat-Shop-Do/Eat/May-2016/Urban-farmers-in-Toronto-flout-regulations-to-raise-bees-and-chickens/

“City of Toronto Bylaw 349”
www.torontochickens.com, http://torontochickens.com/city-of-toronto-bylaw/

Deschamps, Tara. “Rent the Chicken runs a-fowl of Toronto bylaw”
www.thestar.com, https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2015/04/07/rent-the-chicken-runs-a-fowl-of-toronto-bylaw.html

Smith, Michael E. “Aztec Urban Agriculture” www.wideurbanworld.blogspot.ca, http://wideurbanworld.blogspot.ca/2011/11/aztec-urban-agriculture.html

“Urban Agriculture: Livestock and Poultry” www.omafra.gov.on.ca, http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/urbanagricul.html

“Raising Livestock and Poultry” www.omafra.gov.on.ca, http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/urbanagbib/raisinglivestockandpoultry.html

Hayward, Jackie. “Chicken and Egg: The Evolution of City Chickens and Urban Livestock” www.chefsblade.monster.com, http://chefsblade.monster.com/news/articles/1739-chicken-and-egg-the-evolution-of-city-chickens-and-urban-livestock?page=3

Dick, Lyle & Taylor, Jeff. “History of Agriculture to the Second World War”
www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca, http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/history-of-agriculture/

“Urban Agriculture”
www.en.wikipedia.org, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_agriculture

Hill, Edward. “The Benefits and Costs of the Green Revolution”
www.trunity.com, http://www.trunity.net/sam2/view/article/51cbf44f7896bb431f6af545/